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It includes pre-clinical research on microorganisms and animals, filing for regulatory status, such as via the United States Food and Drug Administration for an investigational new drug to initiate clinical trials on humans, and may include the step of obtaining regulatory approval with a new drug application to market the drug. Drug discovery is done by pharmaceutical companies, with research assistance from universities.
The "final product" of drug discovery is a patent on the potential drug. Small companies have a critical role, often then selling the rights to larger companies that have the resources to run the clinical trials. Pharmacological 2. Toxicological 3. IND application 4. Drug characterization 5. It is the function of drug development to assess all of these parameters prior to human clinical trials. These generally constitute a number of tests designed to determine the major toxicities of a novel compound prior to first use in humans.
Components of pharmacological evaluation 1. Selectivity testing. Pharmacological profiling. Testing in animal models of disease. Safety pharmacology. Screening for selectivity 2. Binding assays. Either on: 1. In vitro models: Cell lines or isolated tissues. Does it loose its effectiveness or reveal effects not seen on acute administration and whether there is any rebound after effect when it is stopped. Acute physiological and pharmacological models 2.
Chronic physiological and pharmacological models 3. Genetic models Face validity 2. Construct validity 3. Predictive validity S, Gastrointestinal and respiratory system responses to agonists and stimulation of autonomic nerves.
Mortality should be looked for up to 72 hours after parentral administration and up to 7 days after oral administration. Symptoms, signs and mode of death should be reported, with appropriate macroscopic and microscopic findings where necessary. The number of animals required for these studies, i. Two species should generally be used, one of them being non-rodent if possible. In females the medication should be continued after mating and the pregnant one should be treated throughout pregnancy.
The route of administration should be the same as for therapeutic use in humans. Observations should include total examination of the litters from both the groups, including spontaneous abortions, if any. One of the doses should cause minimum maternal toxicity and one should be the proposed dose for clinical use in humans or multiple of it.
The route of administration should be the same as for human therapeutic use. Observations should include the number of implantation sites, restorations if any; and the number foetuses with their sexes, weights and malformations if any.
The control of each treated group should have at least 12 pregnant females and the dose which causes low foetal loss should be continued throughout lactation weaning. Animals should be sacrificed and observations should include macroscopic autopsy and where necessary, histopathology. The drug should be applied to an appropriate site to determine local effects in a suitable species such as guinea pigs or rabbits, if the drug is absorbed from the site of applications, appropriate systemic toxicity studies will be required.
The drug should be administered 7 days a week or a fraction of the life span comparable to the fraction of human life span over which the drug is likely to be used therapeutically. If the IND is approved, development moves to the clinical phase. If safety and efficacy are adequately proved, clinical testing may stop at this step and the NCE advances to the new drug application NDA stage.
In addition to the tests required to move a novel drug into the clinic for the first time, manufacturers must ensure that any long-term or chronic toxicities are well-defined, including effects on systems not previously monitored fertility, reproduction, immune system, among others. They must also test the compound for its potential to cause cancer carcinogenicity testing.
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